Ways and Means

Ways and Means (Greek: Πόροι ἢ περὶ Προσόδων, Poroi ē peri Prosodōn, "The Public Revenues or Concerning Income", also translated A Pamphlet on Revenues) was written in 355 BC and is believed to be the last work written by Xenophon. This was shortly after Athens' defeat in the Social War and the collapse of the Second Athenian League, and the city was facing financial ruin. Ways and Means is made up of 6 chapters, addressed to the Council of Five Hundred in response to political statements that expressed that Athens' unfair behavior against other cities is due to its poverty. The essay consists of suggestions to alleviate the economic situation in Athens at this time. Xenophon proposes through Ways and Means that Athens would be able to support itself without relying on the profits of war and empire. There are different receptions of this work, but mainly agreed upon is that this was an attempt to create a new type of imperialism that was supported more by peace and Athens itself instead of oppressive behavior on other cities. Synopsis Chapter 1 In chapter 1, Xenophon lists the natural qualities of Athens that should allow it to have a sufficient income. Xenophon lists reasons such as the abundance of natural resources like stone and silver in Attica as sources of revenue. Another point was that tamer seasons in the region allowed for higher agricultural capabilities. Xenophon also references that Athens is in a central location in Greece, good for trade by land and sea and isolated from barbarians. Chapter 2 In chapter 2, Xenophon suggests that Athens should increase the population of metics as a means of increasing revenue. Xenophon identifies metics as a prime source of revenue due to their obligation to pay taxes to the city of Athens. He suggests incentivizing the foreigners by decreasing their duties required of them to stay in Athens and building loyalty to the city. Specifically, he brings up alleviating the metics of their duties as infantry for the city to decrease the payment that Athens has to make to them for their service, while keeping their payments and also making the Athenian infantry completely consisting of citizens. Other incentives that Xenophon suggests are privileges such as granting the metics the ability to serve in the cavalry and own land within the walls of Athens.