Ways and Means

Ways and Means (Greek: Πόροι ἢ περὶ Προσόδων, Poroi ē peri Prosodōn, "The Public Revenues or Concerning Income", also translated A Pamphlet on Revenues) was written in 355 BC and is believed to be the last work written by Xenophon. This was shortly after Athens' defeat in the Social War and the collapse of the Second Athenian League, and the city was facing financial ruin. Ways and Means is made up of 6 chapters, addressed to the Council of Five Hundred in response to political statements that expressed that Athens' unfair behavior against other cities is due to its poverty. The essay consists of suggestions to alleviate the economic situation in Athens at this time. Xenophon proposes through Ways and Means that Athens would be able to support itself without relying on the profits of war and empire. There are different receptions of this work, but mainly agreed upon is that this was an attempt to create a new type of imperialism that was supported more by peace and Athens itself instead of oppressive behavior on other cities.