Papua New Guinea

Etymology and naming

"Papua" is derived from a local term of uncertain origin, that may have referred to at least part of the island now called New Guinea. In 1526 Portuguese explorer Jorge de Menezes named the island Ilhas dos Papuas. The Australian government adopted the name "Territory of Papua" when it assumed control of British New Guinea in 1902, which Prime Minister Edmund Barton considered a "shorter and better name" for the territory.

"New Guinea" (Nueva Guinea) was the name coined by the Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez. In 1545, he noted the resemblance of the people to those he had earlier seen along the Guinea coast of Africa. Guinea, in its turn, is etymologically derived from the Portuguese word Guiné. The name is one of several toponyms sharing similar etymologies, which likely mean "of the burnt face" or similar, in reference to the dark skin of the inhabitants. Its use in the country name comes from the Territory of New Guinea, the name adopted for German New Guinea when it became a League of Nations mandate under Australian administration.

The hyphenated form "Papua-New Guinea" was adopted by the Papua‑New Guinea Provisional Administration Act 1945, after previous use to refer to the two Australian-administered territories. The name "Territory of Papua and New Guinea" was used following formal administrative union in 1949. Beginning in the 1960s, there was considerable debate around whether the territory should adopt a new name upon independence. The indigenised name "Niugini" won a 1968 competition held by the South Pacific Post and was adopted by several nationalist groups, while "Pagini" was favoured by a parliamentary committee into constitutional development. In 1971, the House of Assembly renamed the territory "Papua New Guinea", which was retained upon independence.

History

First settlement

Archaeological evidence indicates that modern humans first arrived in what became New Guinea and Australia, as well as the Bismarck Archipelago, around 42,000 to 45,000 years ago. Bougainville was settled by around 28,000 years ago, and the more distant Manus Island by around 20,000 years ago. These were part of the earliest migrations of humans from Africa, and the resulting populations remained relatively isolated from the rest of the world throughout prehistory. Rising sea levels isolated New Guinea from Australia about 10,000 years ago, although Aboriginal Australians and New Guineans had already diverged from each other from about 37,000 years ago.

Agriculture was independently developed in the New Guinea highlands around 7000 BC, making it one of the few areas in the world where people independently domesticated plants. Before the onset of full-scale agriculture, some plants had already been domesticated, including sago, Canarium indicum, and karuka. Archaeological evidence shows that Austronesian-speaking peoples of the Lapita culture reached the Bismarck Archipelago by 3,300 years ago. It is unknown whether they also settled on the mainland at this time, but there is strong evidence of their presence in coastal areas from around 500 BC. These communities interacted with larger trade networks. It is likely through these trading networks that banana and sugarcane moved from New Guinea to other areas of the world.

Trade became rarer around 300 AD, as demand for goods shifted to the Maluku Islands and Timor. After European interest in the region grew in the 16th century, Dutch influence grew over the Sultanate of Tidore. As Dutch authorities become more interested in New Guinea, they confirmed and extended the sultanate's claims over western New Guinea. Renewed trade began to spread to the eastern parts of New Guinea in the late 17th century, driven by demand for goods such as dammar gum, sea cucumbers, pearls, copra, shells, and bird-of-paradise feathers.

On New Guinea, communities were economically linked through trading networks. Despite this, aside from some political alliances, each community functioned largely independently, relying on subsistence agriculture. Goods were often traded along established chains, and some villagers would be familiar with and sometimes know the languages of the immediately neighbouring villages (although language by itself was not a marker of political allegiance). Some wider trading networks existed in maritime areas. While people did not move far along these routes, goods moved long distances through local exchanges, and cultural practices likely diffused along them. Despite these links, the creation of larger political entities under European rule had no precedent, and in many cases brought together communities that historically had antagonistic relationships, or no relationship at all.

European influence

It is likely that some ships from China and Southeast Asia visited the island at times, and that there was some contact with New Guinean communities. The Portuguese explorer António de Abreu was the first European to discover the island of New Guinea. Portuguese traders introduced the South American sweet potato to the Moluccas. From there, it likely spread into what is today Papua New Guinea sometime in the 17th or 18th century, initially from the southern coast. It soon spread inland to the highlands, and became a staple food. The introduction of the sweet potato, possibly alongside other agricultural changes, transformed traditional agriculture and societies. This likely led to the spread of the Big man social structure. Sweet potato largely supplanted the previous staple, taro, and led to significant population growth in the highlands.

By the 1800s, there was some trade with the Dutch East Indies. Beginning in the 1860s, people from New Guinea were effectively taken as slaves to Queensland and Fiji as part of the blackbirding trade. This was stopped in 1884. Most of those taken were from coastal Papua. Those who returned to New Guinea brought their experiences with Western culture with them, but the largest impact was the development of a Melanesian Pidgin that would eventually become the Tok Pisin language.

Christianity was introduced to New Guinea on 15 September 1847 when a group of Marist missionaries went to Woodlark Island. Missions were the primary source of Western culture as well as religion. The western half of the island was annexed by the Netherlands in 1848. The nearby Torres Strait Islands were annexed by Queensland in 1878, and Queensland attempted to annex some of New Guinea in 1883. The eastern half of the island was divided between Germany in the north and the United Kingdom in the south in 1884. The German New Guinea Company had initially tried to develop plantations, but when this was not successful began to engage in barter trade. In the British area, gold was found near the Mambare River in 1895.

In 1888, the British protectorate was annexed by Britain. In 1902, Papua was effectively transferred to the authority of the newly federated British dominion of Australia. With the passage of the Papua Act 1905, the area was officially renamed the Territory of Papua, and the Australian administration became formal in 1906, with Papua becoming fully annexed as an Australian territory.

World War II and Australian rule

During World War II, Japanese forces sought to capture Port Moresby, invading overland in mid-1942 and moving south in the Kokoda Track campaign. Australian forces carried out a number of rearguard actions as they withdrew almost to Port Moresby. In September an Australian counter-offensive began, and Japanese forces fought rearguard actions as they retreated north. Australian forces were supported during this campaign through significant contributions from local soldiers and helpers. While this campaign was ongoing, the Japanese launched the Battle of Milne Bay, where their attack was repulsed by Australian and American forces. These events, along with the nearby Guadalcanal campaign, marked a turning point in the Pacific War. A war of attrition continued until 1944, when allied forces fully recaptured Papua and New Guinea. In total, the New Guinea campaign resulted in the deaths of approximately 216,000 Japanese, Australian, and U.S. servicemen on both the mainland and offshore islands.

During the war, the civil government of both territories was suspended and replaced by a joint military government. The Second World War punctured the myth of differences between locals and foreigners, and increased the exposure of the population to the wider world and modern social and economic ideas. It also led to significant population movements, beginning the establishment of a common identity shared by those in the two Australian-ruled territories. Both Tok Pisin and Hiri Motu became more common to facilitate communication, and were used for radio broadcasts. The war was the first time Tok Pisin became widely spread in Papua. The joint governance of both territories that was established during the war was continued after the war ended.

In 1946, New Guinea was declared a United Nations trust territory under Australian governance. In 1949 Papuans became Australian citizens, and Australia formally combined Papua and New Guinea into the Territory of Papua and New Guinea. The Legislative Council of Papua and New Guinea was created in November 1951. Village councils were first created in both Papua and in New Guinea starting 1949, with the number steadily increasing over the years. These created alternative power structures, which while sometimes filled by traditional leaders, saw the beginning of a shift towards leaders with administrative or business experience.

The political aims of Australian rule were uncertain, with independence and becoming an Australian state both seen as possible futures. The 1960s and 1970s saw significant social changes as more of the population began to participate in the formal economy, leading to the development of a more local bureaucracy. Alongside this, Australian administrators promoted a shared national identity. English was introduced by Australian authorities as a potential unifying language, and many Papua New Guineans viewed it as a prestige language.

Independence

Upon independence, most Australian officials, including agricultural, economic, educational, and medicinal staff, left the territory. Very little training had been provided to their successors. This led to a restructuring and a loss of efficiency, particularly in serving rural areas. By the 1980s, the civil service, including the military, had become politicised, decreasing effectiveness and accountability.

The voting system was changed to first past the post, as an unsuccessful attempt to encourage the development of a two-party system with clearly defined political parties. National governments changed through constitutional means. Somare retained the prime ministership following the 1977 election, and was ousted through a vote of no confidence in 1980 and was replaced by Julius Chan. Somare became prime minister again following the 1982 election, but lost another vote of no confidence in 1985.

Although an August 1976 agreement with the national government resolved the initial declaration of independence, the issue of Bougainville persisted past independence. A secessionist movement in 1975–76 on Bougainville Island resulted in a modification of the Constitution of Papua New Guinea, with the Organic Law on Provincial Government legally devolving power to the 19 provinces. Following instances of provincial government mismanagement, Somare's proposal to reduce provincial government power brought further threats of secession from some of the country's island provinces.

While warfare significantly decreased under Australian governance, tribal fighting in the highland areas increased in the 1970s. These areas had been under outside control for less time, meaning former tribal conflict was still remembered and restarted upon independence. The first state of emergency there was declared in 1979, although it and similar interventions did not quell the violence. Unemployment and imbalanced gender ratios in cities meant tribal fighting morphed into the emergence of gangs. Gang violence led to a state of emergency in Port Moresby in 1984, which led to the intervention of the Papua New Guinea Defence Force (PNGDF). The effectiveness of this deployment led to further police and military interventions elsewhere. Both the police and military became more politicised, and less disciplined. Demand for private security increased as a response, and foreign investment was deterred. In 1995, provincial governments were reformed, becoming made up of relevant national MPs and a number of appointed members. Some of their responsibilities were devolved towards local governments, a factor that caused significant controversy due to an expected lack of capacity at this level. This lack of capacity has meant that national MPs gained significant powers at the local level.

Government and politics

Papua New Guinea is a Commonwealth realm with Charles III as king. The monarch's representative is the governor-general of Papua New Guinea, who is elected by the unicameral National Parliament of Papua New Guinea. The National Parliament elects the prime minister of Papua New Guinea, who is then appointed by the governor-general. The other ministers are appointed by the governor-general on the prime minister's advice and form the National Executive Council of Papua New Guinea, which acts as the country's cabinet. The National Parliament sits for a maximum of five years. It has 118 seats, with 96 representing districts, and 22 representing province-level electorates (20 provinces, the National Capital District, and the Autonomous Region of Bougainville) who serve as governors of those provinces.

Papua New Guinea has maintained continuous democratic elections and changes in government since independence. While seat results are often contested, the overall results of elections are accepted. Elections in PNG attract numerous candidates. Voting takes place through the Limited Preferential Vote system (LPV), a version of the alternative vote. Under this system, voters must give preference votes for at least three candidates.

While political parties exist, they are not ideologically differentiated. Instead they generally reflect the alliances made between their members, and have little relevance outside of elections. All governments since 1972 have been coalitions. When formed, such coalitions are unstable due to the potential for party hopping, referred to as "yo-yo" politics. Almost all parties have formed coalitions with the others, and some coalitions have consisted of up to 10 separate parties. Ministerial positions are valuable, and constituents may often have little issue with their elected representatives switching parties to join the government, as it gives their district more representation. Ministerial tenures are often short, averaging half the length of a parliament from 1972 to 2016. The average time a minister spends at a particular portfolio is even shorter, at just 16 months. Political parties can have MPs in government while others remain in opposition. Opposition MPs have been appointed to government. For the first couple of decades of independence, there was at least one change of government within each parliamentary period. In total, only two prime ministers have finished a full term from election to election. Votes of no confidence are common, and while few are successful, multiple prime ministers have pre-emptively resigned to try to engineer reselection or adjourned parliament to avoid them.

Foreign relations

Papua New Guinea has sought to maintain good relations with its neighbours Australia, Indonesia, and the Solomon Islands, while also building links to Asian countries to the north. Tensions sometimes emerge with Australia due to changes in aid, while regional conflicts have complicated relations with the Solomon Islands and Indonesia, due to the Bougainville conflict and the Papua conflict respectively. In 1986, Papua New Guinea became a founding member of the Melanesian Spearhead Group alongside the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, and the three signed a formal cooperation agreement in 1988. Cooperation treaties were signed with Indonesia in 1986 and Australia in 1987.

Papua New Guinea has recognised and supported Indonesia's control of neighbouring Western New Guinea, the focus of the Papua conflict where numerous human rights violations have reportedly been committed by the Indonesian security forces. Residents of border communities may cross it for customary purposes. Australia remains linked to Papua New Guinea through institutional and cultural ties, and has remained the most consistent provider of foreign aid, as well as providing peacekeeping and security assistance. There are growing ties to China, mostly as a source of infrastructure investments. The strategic position of the country, linking Southeast Asia to the Pacific, has increased geopolitical interest in the 21st century.

Papua New Guinea has been an observer state in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1976, followed later by special observer status in 1981. It has filed its application for full membership status. Papua New Guinea is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Pacific Islands Forum, APEC, and the United Nations.

Crime and human rights

Papua New Guinea is considered to have one of the highest rates of violence against women in the world, with widespread domestic and sexual violence affecting women and children. Nearly 60% of women and girls (aged 15–49) in Papua New Guinea have experienced some form of physical sexual violence in their lifetime. Such violence imposes both personal and communal costs, and is likely a reason why female participation in politics is the lowest in the region, and deters parents from sending their daughters to school. The 1971 Sorcery Act allowed for accusations of sorcery to act as a defence for murder until the act was repealed in 2013. An estimated 50–150 alleged witches are killed each year in Papua New Guinea. Homosexual acts are prohibited by law in Papua New Guinea.

While tribal violence has long been a way of life in the highlands regions, an increase in firearms has led to greater loss of life. In the past, rival groups had been known to use axes, bush knives and traditional weapons, while respecting rules of engagement that prevented violence while hunting or at markets. These norms have been changing with a greater uptake of firearms. The smuggling and theft of ammunition have also increased violence in these regions. The police forces and military find it difficult to maintain control. Violence between raskol gangs occurs in both urban and rural areas, and some gangs have become linked to politicians. Raskol violence has depressed economic activity in rural areas.

The Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary is responsible for maintaining law and order. It has been challenged in this as more advanced weaponry exacerbates tribal conflicts, as well as being unable to prevent violence against women. These challenges are compounded by underfunding, which has contributed to low morale. Issues have been raised regarding human rights abuses and destruction of property as a result of police actions. The constabulary has been troubled by infighting, political interference, and corruption.

Administrative divisions

While Papua New Guinea is a unitary state, it is highly decentralised. The country is divided between four regions, although these are not used as administrative divisions. The nation has 22 province-level divisions: twenty provinces, the Autonomous Region of Bougainville and the National Capital District. Each province is divided into districts (89 in total), which in turn are divided into one or more Local-Level Government areas (LLGs). There are over 300 LLGs, which are divided between a small number of urban LLGs and rural LLGs, which have slightly different governance structures. The smallest province by size and population, Manus, has just one coterminous district. Provinces are the primary administrative divisions of the country, with provincial governments consisting of the national MPs elected from that province. Local governments function parallel to traditional tribal leadership. They are very dissimilar in population: the most populous six make up half of the national population, while the smallest six make up 14%. Provinces can levy their own taxes, and have some control over education, health, and development. The province-level divisions are as follows:

Geography

Papua New Guinea extends over 462,840 km2 (178,704 sq mi), including a large mainland and a number of islands. The country lies just south of the equator, and shares a land border with Indonesia, and maritime borders with Australia, the Solomon Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia. The island of New Guinea lies at the east of the Malay Archipelago. The country is separated from Australia's Cape York Peninsula by the shallow 152-kilometre (94 mi) Torres Strait. To the west of this strait is the shallow Arafura Sea, while to its east is the much deeper Coral Sea. The Gulf of Papua covers much of the southern coast, while the Solomon Sea lies east of the mainland.

The total coastline is longer than 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi), and the country has an exclusive economic zone of 2,396,575 km2 (925,323 mi2). The country covers two time zones, with the Autonomous Region of Bougainville an hour ahead of the rest of the country.

The geological history of New Guinea is complex. It lies where the north-moving Indo-Australian plate meets the west-moving Pacific plate. This has caused its highly variable geography both on the mainland and on its islands. Tectonic movement is also the cause of the country's active volcanos and frequent earthquakes. The country is situated on the Pacific Ring of Fire, with altogether 14 known active volcanos and 22 dormant ones. The area south of the mountainous spine is part of the Australian craton, with much of the land to the north being accreted terrain. Both the mainland and the main island groups of the Bismarck Archipelago and the Bougainville are dominated by large mountains. Altogether, mountains cover at least 72% of the country. Of the rest, 15% are plains and 11% swamps. There are four larger islands (Bougainville, Manus, New Britain, and New Ireland) and over 600 smaller ones; the smaller islands also often have steep slopes and small coastal areas.

The New Guinea Highlands lie within a spine of mountain ranges which run along the centre of the island from Milne Bay in the very southeast of Papua New Guinea through to the western end of Indonesian New Guinea. One of these mountains is Mount Wilhelm, which at 4,509 metres (14,793 ft) is the highest point in the country. Between these mountains are steep valleys, which have a variety of geological histories. The populous region referred to as the Highlands has shorter mountains than those to its northwest and southeast and includes some relatively flat areas between the mountains.

Biodiversity

Papua New Guinea is a megadiverse country, containing approximately 5% of known living species, of which perhaps one third are found nowhere else. It hosts 4.5% of known mammal diversity, and perhaps 30,000 vascular plant species. The forests of New Guinea form the third-largest contiguous rainforest area in the world. This large extent of forest contains rich biodiversity and contributes to the stability of the global climate. Vegetation can be broadly divided by altitude, into lowland, lower montane, upper montane, and alpine plant communities. These forests continue to provide food, natural resources, and other benefits derived from the environment to many communities. The complex geology and significant local variations in temperature, rainfall, and altitude mean the country has widely varying microclimates and numerous isolated habitats which host unique plant and animal communities. This local biodiversity can be sorted into broader classifications, such as those in coastal regions, mountainous areas, and different groups of islands.

A diverse variety of flora is found in the country, influenced by vegetation from Asia and Australia, and further varied by the country's rugged topography and distinct local climates. In areas heavily affected by human presence, Imperata and Themeda grasslands have formed. Cane grasses also grow in cleared areas, Miscanthus species in the highlands and Saccharum species in the lowlands. Such grasses often grow where land is left to fallow for 10 to 15 years. Around 4,800 square kilometres (1,900 sq mi) of mangroves stretch along the coast. The country is part of the Malesia biogeographical area, with its plant species more similar to those of East Asia than Australasia, although there are exceptions, especially at higher altitudes. The Bougainville archipelago is biogeographically most closely related to the rest of the Solomon Islands archipelago, distinct from the rest of the country.

Within the rainforest, there are over 2,000 known species of orchids and around 2,000 species of ferns. The country is thought to have 150,000 species of insects, 813 birds, 314 freshwater fish, 352 amphibians, 335 reptiles, and 298 terrestrial mammals. It is believed that there are many undocumented species of plants and animals, with new species being regularly described. The western interior of the country is particularly poorly researched, although some groups such as birds-of-paradise and bowerbirds are likely well-known. Some areas have particularly large numbers of species of certain types of animals. Insect and lizard diversity is high north of the central mountain spine. Marsupial, snake, and freshwater fish diversity is highest in areas south of the mountain spine such as the Fly lowlands. Frog diversity is generally highest in mountainous areas on the mainland and Bougainville (an exception being the highly diverse Huon Peninsula).

Economy

Papua New Guinea is classified as a developing economy by the International Monetary Fund. The economy is largely dependent on natural resources, with capital investment concentrated in mining and oil, while most labour is employed in agriculture. As of 2018, natural resource extraction made up 28% of overall GDP, with substantial contributors including minerals, oil, and natural gas. Measuring economic growth is difficult due to the resource-dependent economy distorting GDP. Other metrics such as Gross national income are hard to measure. Even historical GDP estimates have changed dramatically. As of 2019, PNG's real GDP growth rate was 3.8%, with an inflation rate of 4.3%. The national currency, the Kina, is regulated by the Bank of Papua New Guinea, which has varied its approach to managing the exchange rate. Formal employment is low. There is a minimum wage, but it has declined in real terms since independence. In the late 2010s, around 40% of those employed in urban areas worked outside of agriculture, but only around 20% in rural areas.

Timber and marine resources are also exported, with the country being one of the few suppliers of tropical timber, Forestry is an important economic resource for Papua New Guinea, but the industry uses low and semi-intensive technological inputs. As a result, product ranges are limited to sawed timber, veneer, plywood, block board, moulding, poles and posts and wood chips. Only a few finished products are exported. Lack of automated machinery, coupled with inadequately trained local technical personnel, are some of the obstacles to introducing automated machinery and design. Forestry is an avenue for corruption and many projects face legal uncertainty. Up to 70% of logging may be illegal. Marine fisheries provide around 10% of global catch.

Agriculture in the country includes crops grown for domestic sale and international export, as well as for subsistence agriculture. Agricultural exports of commodities such as copra, copra oil, rubber, tea, cocoa, and coffee have not grown. However, the conversion of forests to oil palm plantations to produce palm oil has become a significant and growing source of employment and income. Overall the country produces 1.6% of global palm oil, and 1% of global coffee. While not the largest sector of the economy, agriculture provides the most employment, at around 85% of all jobs.

Assessments of poverty have found that it is most common in rural areas. Nearly 40% of the population are subsistence farmers, living relatively independently of the cash economy. As a result, farming is the most widespread economic activity. Most is carried out through simple rainfed surface irrigation, with specific techniques varying by location. Taro is a historical crop, although the introduction of the now-staple sweet potato allowed for cultivation as high as 2,700 metres (8,900 ft). Metroxylon sagu, from which sago is extracted, is also commonly cultivated.

Demographics

Papua New Guinea is one of the most heterogeneous nations in the world. In addition to having perhaps a quarter of the world's languages, ethnic identity within the country is further divided by factors such as geography, kinship ties, and external pressures. The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs population estimate as of 2020 was 8.95 million inhabitants. Government estimates put the population at 11.8 million in 2021. With the National Census deferred during 2020/2021, ostensibly on the grounds of the COVID-19 pandemic, an interim assessment was conducted using satellite imagery. In December 2022, a report by the UN, based upon a survey conducted with the University of Southampton using satellite imagery and ground-truthing, suggested a new population estimate of 17 million, nearly double the country's official estimate. In July 2023 the UN officially revised its estimate to 11.8 million. While decadal censuses have been carried out since 1961, the reliability of past censuses is unsure. Nonetheless, the population is thought to have grown greatly since independence. Despite this growth, urbanisation has remained largely unchanged or only slightly increased. As of 2015, about 0.3% of the population was international migrants.

Papua New Guinea is one of the most rural countries, with only 14% of its population living in urban centres as of 2023. The biggest city is the capital Port Moresby, with other larger settlements including Lae, Mount Hagen, Madang, and Wewak. As of 2000, there were 40 urban areas with a population over 1,000. Most of its people live in customary communities. The most populated region is the Highlands, with 43% of the population. The northern mainland has 25%, the southern region 18%, and the Islands Region 14%. Traditional small communities, usually under 300 people, often consist of a very small main village, surrounded by farms and gardens in which other dwellings are dispersed. These are lived in for some of the year, and villagers may have multiple homes. In communities which need to hunt or farm across wide areas, the main village may be as small as one or two buildings. Up to two-thirds of the country might be classed as unoccupied. Outside of urban areas, the highest population densities are on small islands. An increase in urban populations has led to an average decrease in urban quality of life, even as the quality of life in rural areas has generally improved. Despite the widespread population, over four-fifths live within eight hours of a government service centre.

The gender ratio in 2016 was 51% male and 49% female. The number of households headed by a male was 82.5%, or 17.5% were headed by females. The median age of marriage is 20, while 18% of women are in polygynous relationships. The population is young, with a median age under 22 in 2011, when 36% of the population was younger than 15. The dependency ratio in urban areas was 64% in the late 2010s, while it was 83% in rural areas. As of 2016, the total fertility rate was 4.4.

Languages

There are around 840 known languages of Papua New Guinea (including English), making it the most linguistically diverse country in the world. Papua New Guinea has more languages than any other country, with over 820 indigenous languages, representing 12% of the world's total, but the majority are spoken by fewer than a thousand people, and an average of only 7,000 speakers per language. Papua New Guinea has the second highest density of languages among all nations on Earth, after Vanuatu. The most widely spoken indigenous language is Enga, with about 200,000 speakers, followed by Melpa and Huli. However, even Enga is divided into different dialects. Indigenous languages are classified into two large groups, Austronesian languages and Papuan, although "Papuan" is a group of convenience for local non-Austronesian languages, rather than defining any linguistic relationships.

There are four languages in Papua New Guinea with popular cultural recognition as national languages: English, Tok Pisin, Hiri Motu, and, since 2015, sign language (in practice Papua New Guinean Sign Language). However, there is no specific legislation proclaiming official languages. Language is only briefly mentioned in the constitution, which calls for "universal literacy in Pisin, Hiri Motu or English" as well as "tok ples" and "ita eda tano gado" (the terms for local languages in Tok Pisin and Hiri Motu respectively). It also mentions the ability to speak a local language as a requirement for citizenship by nationalisation, and that those arrested are required to be informed in a language they understand.

English is the language of commerce and the education system, while the primary lingua franca of the country is Tok Pisin. Parliamentary debates are usually conducted in a mixture of English and Tok Pisin. The national judiciary uses English, while provincial and district courts usually use Tok Pisin or Hiri Motu. Village courts may use a local language. Most national newspapers use English, although one national weekly newspaper, Wantok, uses Tok Pisin. National radio and television use English and Tok Pisin, with a small amount of Hiri Motu. Provincial radio uses a mixture of these languages, in addition to local ones. Over time, Tok Pisin has continued to spread as the most common language, displacing Hiri Motu, including in the former Hiri Motu-dominated capital, Port Moresby.

Most provinces do not have a dominant local language, although exceptions exist. Enga Province is dominated by Enga language speakers, but it adopted Tok Pisin as its official language in 1976. East New Britain Province is dominated by Tolai speakers, which has caused issues with minority speakers of the Baining languages or Sulka. However, language has generally not been a cause for conflict, with conflicts occurring between communities speaking the same language, and regional identities incorporating many linguistic communities. English and Tok Pisin are generally seen as neutral languages, while local languages are considered culturally valuable and multilingualism is officially encouraged.

Religion

The 2011 census found that 95.6% of citizens identified themselves as Christian, 1.4% reported other beliefs, and 3.1% gave no answer. Virtually no respondent identified as being non-religious. Religious syncretism is common, with many citizens combining their Christian faith with some traditional indigenous religious practices. Many Christian denominations have a large presence in the country. The largest denomination is the Catholic Church, followed by 26.0% of the population. The next largest is the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Papua New Guinea (18.4%), followed by the Seventh-day Adventist Church (12.9%), Pentecostal denominations (10.4%), the United Church in Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands (10.3%), "Other Christian" (9.7%), Evangelical Alliance (5.9%), the Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea (3.2%), the Baptist Union of Papua New Guinea (2.8%) and smaller groups.

The government and judiciary have upheld the constitutional right to freedom of speech, thought, and belief. However, Christian fundamentalism and Christian Zionism have become more common, driven by the spread of American prosperity theology through visitors and televangelism. This has challenged the dominance of mainstream churches and reduced the expression of some aspects of pre-Christian culture. A constitutional amendment in March 2025 recognised Papua New Guinea as a Christian country, with specific mention of "God, the Father; Jesus Christ, the Son; and Holy Spirit", and the Bible as a national symbol.

Culture

Melanesian culture developed without significant external influence due to the isolation of New Guinea. This culture places significant importance on relationships, both between people and between a person and aspects of the natural environment. The importance of relationships is seen in the Kula ring trade, where items are traded to maintain relationships rather than for direct economic benefit. Connections to and ownership of land are important, although these are generally at the community level rather than an individual one. Local in-group relations are a strong component of the wantok system, and so treatment by individuals of those in their communities will often differ from the way they treat those of other communities. The value of actions is often evaluated predominantly or exclusively by impact on one's local community.

The culture of traditional Melanesian societies sees small communities led under a "big man". These are often considered to be positions earned through merit and societies are thought to be relatively egalitarian, although at times hereditary influence does play a role, and there are varying social stratifications in addition to differences relating to age and gender. Broadly, highland societies were likely more individualistic than lowland societies. As in the traditional big man system the position is expected to be demonstrated in part through the generous dispersion of excess wealth, cultural expectations lead to the use of modern political and economic positions for patronage. The dominance of this system constrains modern gender roles, with the vast majority of politicians and leaders continuing to be men. The difference between men and women is the largest source of inequality in traditional communities. Those who become "big men" may maintain some respect throughout life, although status can be lost if others can outperform them. Kinship may come from expressed ties as well as biological ones. The importance of traditional communities can also clash with the concept of higher levels of authority.

The country remains greatly fragmented, with strong local identities and allegiances that often contrast with a weak national identity. One joint symbol of national identity is the bird-of-paradise, which is present on the national flag and emblem. Feathers from these birds remain important in traditional ceremonies, and during sing-sing gatherings. The country possesses one UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Kuk Early Agricultural Site, which was inscribed in 2008. Seashells were historically valuable. In highland areas far from the coast, they were considered of greater worth than steel at the time of the first European contact. Shells retain ceremonial value, and in parts of East New Britain Province shells still retain some function as a form of currency. The name for the national currency, "kina", comes from a kind of gold-lipped pearl shell.