bushido

Origin

The concept of a samurai code or codes was developed and refined centuries before the Edo period in the Kamakura period. Such ideas formalized earlier moral values and ethics, most commonly stressing a combination of sincerity, frugality, loyalty, martial arts mastery, honour until death, "bravery", and "loyalty to the samurai's lord." Bushido proper developed between the 16th and 20th centuries, but this was debated by pundits who believed they were building on a legacy dating back to the 10th century.

The term bushido itself is "rarely attested in pre-modern literature", but a code of honor did exist among the writing elite and historians who were generally disgusted enough at the dishonorable activity of some fighters such as shinobi as to rarely mention them. Ideas of honor that led to bushido developed in response to the longstanding dishonorable behavior of samurai, emerging stealth and espionage techniques, and Zen Buddhist soldier tenets.

The relative peace in Japan during the Kamakura period favored ideas of honor in battle, expressed in customs such as announcing one's family name and/or lineages before fighting, attempting to limit fights among warrior nobles to horseback archery or sword duels with no subterfuge or trickery, and conducting oneself like a legendary character or renowned hero (tales of daring were popular in the Kamakura period). Pre-bushido honor codes during this time were also contributed to by commoners, who sometimes took on similar roles to samurai and often used their family names as introductions to fighting despite not being noble. However, even during the relatively small family and land quarrels of this time, as well as duels thought to be honorable, warriors often disregarded these norms of combat and the announcement of family names or lineages was mostly a way to brag and assert a right to fight and/or gain whatever a faction was looking for after a fight. Outright bragging was also known to happen. These already tenuous codes of honor were weakened when the Japanese, expecting the invading Mongols to be laid-back with their combat, humiliatingly sent an envoy that fired a noisemaker arrow to officially commence the start of what the Japanese assumed would be a series of small duels and skirmishes. Additionally, Mongols usually cut swathes through soldiers that attempted to announce their lineages before facing them. Despite ultimately winning against the Mongols, these honor norms, along with the shogunate, were weakened enough to cause endemic division that led to the end of the Kamakura period and the court wars of the Nanboku-chō period.

Etymology

Bushidō (武士道) is a Japanese word that literally means 'warrior way'. It is first attested in the 1616 work Kōyō Gunkan (甲陽軍鑑), a military chronicle recording the exploits of the Takeda clan. The term is a compound of bushi (武士; 'warrior', literally 'military + man'), a Chinese-derived word first attested in Japanese in 712 with the on'yomi (Sino-Japanese reading), and dō (道; 'road, way'). In modern usage, bushi is often used as a synonym for samurai; however, historical sources make it clear that bushi and samurai were distinct concepts, with the former referring to soldiers or warriors and the latter referring instead to a kind of hereditary nobility.

In the early 17th century, the term bushidō (武士道) with its on'yomi reading was used alongside the synonymous alternative form (武士の道), read using native Japanese vocabulary (kun'yomi) as mono no fu no michi. Another important term is bushi katagi (武士気質; literally 'warrior temperament').

Usage

For centuries, the samurai adhered to multiple types of the code, of which the interpretations varied per samurai clan and per member of the military nobility. This encompassed morality, their role in society, and how to live a life with honor and virtue. The samurai had some common values, but they did not have a single definition or path that all samurai were required to abide by. The samurai were as practical on the battlefield as any other warriors. These concepts, codes, and ideals were ingrained in the samurai since they rose to power in the Kamakura period (1185–1333). At certain eras, there were prevalent rules and unwritten customs such as the "Way of the Bow and the Horse" (弓馬の道, kyūba no michi) since the 12th century and, in the Edo period, the code of the samurai was formalized with specific virtues and laws by the ruling Tokugawa Shogunate. Notable samurai, such as Miyamoto Musashi (1584–1645) and Yamamoto Tsunetomo (1659–1719)., wrote extensively about their interpretations of bushido. In the 1870s, the Meiji restoration abolished the samurai class, and they were transferred to professional, military, and business classes. However, the former samurai and their descendants continued to be influential in Japanese society because they occupied important positions. Bushido has continued to exist in various forms. Additional concepts and ideas were added to bushido so that it could evolve with the times. It was used in the Armed Forces of the Empire of Japan and symbolically by the successor Japan Self-Defense Forces. In the Taisho period, bushido was advocated as the way of the merchant. It can be dormant for years and revived during geopolitical instability. Centuries of rule by the samurai class have left a deep impact on Japanese society. Thus, various forms are still used today in e.g., Japanese culture, business, martial arts, and communication.

Myth and reality

Bushido is often described as a specific moral code that all members of the samurai class were obligated to follow. However, historically, the samurai adhered to multiple warrior codes, and the interpretations varied per samurai clan, individuals, and eras. These codes and philosophies changed dramatically during the different eras. The earliest proto-bushido type existed since the Kamakura period (1185). The degrees of devotion and interpretations varied between individuals. Since at least the Sengoku period, samurai didn't have compunction to use certain weapons. Retreating from battles did occur if it was unwinnable while others chose to fight till the end. Samurai did not actively seek an honorable death. However, it was honorable to die in the service of a daimyo only while furthering the daimyo's cause.

Samurai had dark customs, the most notable: Kiri-sute gomen was the right to strike the lower class who dishonored them. Seppuku was ritual suicide, to die honorably or restore one's honor. Tsujigiri (crossroads killing) to attack a human opponent to test a weapon or skill became rampant in the early Edo period until a ban was issued. The exact frequency of tsujigiri is unknown, and it was never officially condoned by any samurai clan. However, it and other types of samurai-committed murder did happen enough to become a point of complaint among Europeans.

Samurai did head collection with a ritual to beautify severed heads of worthy rivals and put them on display. The samurai applied various cruel punishments on criminals. The most common capital punishments up until the Meiji Restoration were (in order of severity): decapitation, decapitation with disgraceful exposure of head post-death, crucifixion (e.g. parricide), and death by burning with incendiaries. Members of the samurai class had the privilege to perform hara-kiri (suicide disemboweling). If it was not lethal, then a friend or relation performed decapitation (kaishaku). In 1597, Toyotomi Hideyoshi ordered the prosecution of 26 Martyrs of Japan. They were tortured, mutilated, paraded through villages, and executed by crucifixion, tied to crosses on a hill, and impaled by lances (spears). In the 17th century, the Tokugawa Shogunate executed over 400 Christians (Martyrs of Japan) for being more loyal to their faith than the Shogunate. The capital punishments were beheading, crucifixion, death by burning and Ana-tsurushi (穴吊るし; lit. "hole hanging").

Bushido has been described as Japanese chivalry, and samurai in general have been described as being like Western knights.. Notable similarities and differences depend on which bushido type is compared with chivalry. Christianity had a modifying influence on the virtues of chivalry, whereas bushido was influenced by Zen Buddhism, Shinto, and Confucianism. Bushido is commonly associated with the moral norms of Nitobe Inazō's Bushido: The Soul of Japan (1900), because his book popularized the term bushido internationally. However, it is a romanticized interpretation of bushido that differs from other historical literature by the samurai. Thus, the morals defined by Nitobe do not represent all of bushido. Some researchers claim that chivalric bushido, as defined by Nitobe (a.k.a. Meiji Bushido), was invented in the 19th century. However, there is a plethora of historical literature about Japanese warrior codes, practices, philosophies since the Kamakura period. These types can be categorized by era into Sengoku, Edo, Meiji and Contemporary Bushido. Therefore the term bushido can be used as an overarching term for all the codes, practices, philosophies and principles of samurai culture.

Historical development

The values that became bushido evolved significantly over the centuries to the present. These first appeared as unwritten customs in the 12th century with shogun Minamoto Yoritomo. The written term bushido first appears in the Koyo Gunkan of roughly circa 1616, an account of the military exploits of the Takeda clan. Bushido evolved from being totally devoted to valor in battle into refined types that were more related to moral integrity. The samurai had different types of bushido in each era in history, reflecting changing requirements on the battlefield and in society. The era name should be used to describe the type of bushido.

Heian period

The first predecessor to bushido was the class morality system of the Heian period.

Kamakura period

The first proper Japanese central government was established around the year 700. Japan was ruled by the Emperor (Tennō) with bureaucratic support of the aristocracy. They gradually lost control of their armed servants, the samurai. By the mid-12th century, the samurai class had seized control. The samurai (bushi) ruled Japan with the shogun (将軍) as the overlord until the mid-19th century. The shogun was originally the Emperor's military deputy. After the Genpei War (1180–1185), Minamoto no Yoritomo usurped power from the civil aristocracy by establishing a military government called the bakufu situated in Kamakura since 1192. The Emperor and his court became figureheads.

The appearance of bushido is linked to that of feudal Japan and the first shogun at the time of Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147–1199) in the 12th century. The own moral dimension of bushido gradually appears in the warrior culture and is landmarked in stories and military treaties only from the 14th and 15th centuries. Thus is noted a permanence of the modern representation of its antiquity in Japanese culture and its diffusion is noted.

In the 10th and 11th centuries, there was the Way of the Man-At-Arms (Tsuwamon no michi), and the Way of the Bow and Arrows (Kyûsen / kyûya no Michi). At the time of the Genpei War (1180–1185), it was called "Way of the Bow and the Horse" (弓馬の道, kyūba no michi) because of the major importance of this style of combat for the warriors of the time, and because it was considered a traditional method, that of the oldest samurai heroes, such as Prince Shōtoku, Minamoto no Yorimitsu and Minamoto no Yoshiie (Hachimantarō). According to Louis Frédéric, the kyūba no michi appeared around the 10th century as a set of rules and unwritten customs that samurai were expected to comply with. There was also "Yumiya toru mi no narai" (customs for those who draw the bow). This shows there was an emerging sense of ideal warrior behavior that evolved from daily training and warfare experience.

Towards the 10th and 11th centuries, we began to use expressions such as the way of the man-at-arms (Tsuwamon no michi), the way of the bow and arrows (Kyûsen / kyûya no Michi), the way of the bow and the horse (Kyûba no Michi). These expressions refer to practices which are the ancestors of the way of the warrior (bushidô), but they did not then imply any relation whatsoever to a morality. These were only practices focused on training for real combat, and which therefore had to do with the samurai way of life in the broad sense.

Muromachi-Azuchi (1336–1603)

During the Muromachi period (1336–1573), the way of the warrior began to refine by inserting in their daily activities, alongside martial training, Zen meditation, painting (monochrome style), ikebana, the tea ceremony, poetry such as the death poem (written by samurai before suicidal missions or battles) and literature.

Carl Steenstrup noted that 13th- and 14th-century writings (gunki monogatari) "portrayed the bushi in their natural element, war, eulogizing such virtues as reckless bravery, fierce family pride, and selfless, at times senseless devotion of master and man".

Every farmer was basically also a warrior until Hideyoshi confiscated weapons through a nation-wide "sword-hunt" in 1588. Every ashigaru had his first lessons on the mentality of war from the biwa hōshi. On the other hand, the Heike recitations also propagated civic virtues: loyalty, steadfastness in adversity, and pride of family honor.

The sayings of Sengoku-period retainers and warlords such as Katō Kiyomasa (1562–1611) and Nabeshima Naoshige were generally recorded or passed down to posterity around the turn of the 16th century, when Japan had entered a period of relative peace. In a handbook addressed to "all samurai, regardless of rank", Katō states:

If a man does not investigate into the matter of bushidō daily, it will be difficult for him to die a brave and manly death. Thus, it is essential to engrave this business of the warrior into one's mind well.

Katō was a ferocious warrior who banned even the recitation of poetry, stating:

One should put forth great effort in matters of learning. One should read books concerning military matters, and direct his attention exclusively to the virtues of loyalty and filial piety....Having been born into the house of a warrior, one's intentions should be to grasp the long and the short swords and to die."Nabeshima Naoshige (1538–1618) says similarly, that it is shameful for any man to die without having risked his life in battle, regardless of rank, and that "bushidō is in being crazy to die. Fifty or more could not kill one such a man". However, Naoshige also suggests that "everyone should personally know exertion as it is known in the lower classes".

Edo (1603–1868)

Japan enjoyed two and a half centuries of relative peace during the Edo period (1600 to the mid-19th century). Japan didn't have domestic or international conflict. These peaceful times in Tokugawa society enabled bushido to be refined from a focus on valor in battle to more moral integrity.

The Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1867) codified aspects of the Samurai warrior values and formalized them into parts of the Japanese feudal law. In addition to the "house codes" issued in the context of the fiefdoms (han) and texts that described the right behavior of a warrior (such as the Hagakure), the first Buke shohatto (Laws for the Military Houses, 武家諸法度) was issued by the government in 1615, which prescribed to the lords of the fiefdoms (daimyo) and the samurai warrior aristocracy responsibilities and activities, the rules of conduct, simple and decent clothing, the correct supply in case of official visits, etc. The edicts were reissued in 1629, and in 1635, by the third shogun Tokugawa Iemitsu. The new edicts made clear the shogunate's authority and its desire to assert control. The swordsmanship skills of the samurai developed into character-building martial arts.

During this period, the samurai class played a central role in the policing and administration of the country. The bushidō literature of this time contains much thought relevant to a warrior class seeking more general application of martial principles and experience in peacetime, as well as reflection on the land's long history of war. The literature of this time includes:

Shoke no Hyōjō by Ogasawara Sakuun (1621)

Budo Shōshinshu (武道初心集) by Taira Shigesuke, Daidōji Yūzan (1639–1730)

Hagakure as related by Yamamoto Tsunetomo to Tsuramoto Tashiro.

Bugei Juhappan (武芸十八般)

A Book of Five Rings by Miyamoto Musashi

The first mention of the term bushido is in the scriptures Koyo Gunkan (甲陽軍鑑) from Takeda-ryū (martial arts school), written around 1616 by samurai Kōsaka Masanobu (1527–1578). It consists of 20 scrolls that mention bushido over 30 times. It contains the history of the Takeda family and their military tactics. The Koyo Gunkan describes valor and exploits in battle. For example, it is a waste of talent when a bushido practitioner takes on administrative roles in government or financial affairs (e.g., dealings in rice, money, timber, or forest land). It emphasizes that bushido lies only in "becoming as a spear" on the battlefield. The scrolls were widely disseminated as a martial arts instruction manual by the samurai class and helped to popularize the term.

Meiji (1868–1926)

Recent scholarship in both Japan and abroad has focused on differences between the samurai caste and the bushido theories that developed in modern Japan. Bushido evolved considerably over time. Bushido in the prewar period emphasized the role of the emperor and placed greater value on the imperial virtues of loyalty and self-sacrifice than many Tokugawa-era interpretations.

Prominent scholars consider the bushido prevalent since the Meiji era to be a simplification of the attributes of samurai. Samurai originally fought for personal matters and the honor of their family and clan. When Japan was unified, the role of samurai included public administrative responsibilities, such as public order preservation, judicial responsibility, infrastructure maintenance, disaster recovery, farmland development, healthcare administration, and industrial promotion.

The samurai class was abolished in the 1870s, and the role of those in it grew more bureaucratic, focusing on the formation of a modern nation-state. With the diminishing of social classes, some values were transferred to the whole population, such as loyalty to the emperor. The author Yukio Mishima asserted that "invasionism or militarism had nothing to do with bushidō from the outset." According to Mishima, a man of bushido is someone who has a firm sense of self-respect, takes responsibility for his actions, and sacrifices himself to embody that responsibility.

Dai Jitao credited the samurai with sole responsibility for the Meiji Restoration, which enabled Japan's modernization, while the populace merely allowed it to happen. Dai argued that Japanese combative tendency and militarism were purely founded in Japan's socio-religious superstitions centered on the notion of divine authority. It did not exist in Chinese or Indian thought.

Bushido was used as a propaganda tool by the government and military, who doctored it to suit their needs. The original Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors of 1882 uses the word hōkoku (報国), signifying the idea of indebtedness to one's nation because of one's birth. Such debt must be repaid through physical or mental exertion. This idea did not exist in earlier bushido.

Chinese writer Zhou Zuoren regarded the bushido promoted by the military as a corruption of a noble and ancient tradition. He discussed the act of seppuku and the importance of old samurai practices in his 1935 essay series, "Riben guankui". He named the story of the Forty-seven rōnin of the Akō Domain, who were sentenced to seppuku after avenging their daimyo, and their legacy in the story Chūshingura (A Treasury of Loyal Retainers). He discussed the Sakai incident, in which 20 samurai from the Tosa Domain committed seppuku in 1868 for attacking French sailors. These examples were compared with the soft punishment given to the soldiers who assassinated Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi in 1932. Zhou condemned them for not taking responsibility by committing suicide like traditional samurai. In 1936, Zhou wrote about the loss of humanity and empathy of traditional bushido during the deterioration of the Second World War. He pointed to the samurai novel by Jun'ichirō Tanizaki as an example where victors of a battle treated enemy corpses with dignity.

Showa (1926–1945)

During interbellum and Second World War Shōwa Japan, bushido was pressed into use for militarism to present war as purifying, and death a duty. Bushido was pitched as revitalizing traditional values and "transcending the modern". Bushido would provide a spiritual shield to let soldiers fight to the end. When giving orders, General Hideki Tojo routinely slapped the faces of the men under his command, saying face-slapping was a "means of training" men who came from families that were not part of the samurai caste, and for whom bushido was not second nature. Tojo wrote a chapter in the book Hijōji kokumin zenshū (Essays in time of national emergency) which the Army Ministry published in March 1934. It called for Japan to become a totalitarian "national defense state". It included 15 essays by senior generals and argued Japan defeated Russia in the Russo–Japanese War because bushido gave the Japanese superior willpower: they did not fear death, unlike the Russians who wanted to live.

As the Second World War turned, the spirit of bushido was invoked to urge that all depended on the firm and united soul of the nation. When Japan lost the Battle of Attu, the government attempted to paint the more than two thousand Japanese deaths as an inspirational epic for the fighting spirit of the nation. Arguments that the plans for the Battle of Leyte Gulf, involving all Japanese ships, would expose Japan to danger if they failed, were countered with the plea that the Navy be permitted to "bloom as flowers of death". The Japanese believed that indoctrination in bushido would give them the edge as the Japanese longed to die for the emperor, while the Americans were afraid to die. However, superior American pilot training and airplanes meant the Japanese were outclassed by the Americans. The first proposals of organized suicide attacks met resistance. While bushido called for a warrior to be always aware of death, they were not to view it as the sole end. However, desperation brought about acceptance and such attacks were acclaimed as the true spirit of bushido.

Bushido regarded surrender as cowardly. Those who did forfeited their honor and lost dignity and respect:

As Japan continued its modernization in the early 20th century, its armed forces became convinced that success in battle would be assured if Japanese soldiers, sailors, and airmen had the "spirit" of Bushido. ... The result was that the Bushido code of behavior "was inculcated into the Japanese soldier as part of his basic training". Each soldier was indoctrinated to accept that it was the greatest honor to die for the Emperor, and it was cowardly to surrender to the enemy. ... Bushido therefore explains why the Japanese in the NEI so mistreated POWs in their custody. Those who had surrendered to the Japanese—regardless of how courageously or honorably they had fought—merited nothing but contempt; they had forfeited all honor and literally deserved nothing. Consequently, when the Japanese murdered POWs by shooting, beheading, and drowning, these acts were excused since they involved the killing of men who had forfeited all rights to be treated with dignity or respect. While civilian internees were certainly in a different category from POWs, it is reasonable to think that there was a "spill-over" effect from the tenets of Bushido.

Contemporary bushido

Bushido is still present in the social and economic organization of Japan. The samurai spirit and the virtues can still be found in Japanese society. Notable Japanese consider bushido an important part of their culture.

Business

Bushido affects myriad aspects of Japanese society and culture. In addition to impacts on military performance, media, entertainment, martial arts, medicine, and social work, the bushido code has catalyzed corporate behavior. It is the mode of thought that historically structured the capitalist activity in the 20th century. Business relations, the close relationship between the individual and the group to which he or she belongs, the notions of trust, respect, and harmony within the Japanese business world are based on bushido. Therefore, this is at the origin of the industrial harmony (ja:労使協調) ideology of modern Japan. It allowed the country to become, with the Japanese economic miracle, the economic leader of Asia in the post-war years of the 1950s-1960s. The industrialist Eiichi Shibusawa preached bushido as necessary for future times, and the spirit of Japanese business from the Meiji era to the Taishō Democracy was advocated, which became the backbone necessary for Japanese management.

Shinya Fujimura examines Samurai ethics in the academic article The Samurai Ethics: A Paradigm for Corporate Behavior. Bushido principles indicate that rapid economic growth does not have to be a goal of modern existence. Relatedly, economic contentment is attainable regardless of hegemonic gross domestic product statistics. In Fujimura's words, "The tradition permeates the country's corporate culture and has informed many of its social developments". Fujimura states egalitarian principles practiced by the Samurai have permeated through modern business society and culture. Principles like Honorable Poverty, "Seihin," encourage those with power and resources to share their wealth, directly influencing national success. Bushido also provides enterprises with social meaning. Eloquently described by Fujimura, "The moral purpose that bushido articulates transcends booms and busts ... it is often said that a Japanese company is like a family, with executives caring about employees and employees showing respect to executives. Bushido, then, is part of the basis for a sense of national identity and belonging—an ideal that says the Japanese are one people, in it together.

In Taiwan, there continued to be positive views of bushido. Such as late ROC president Lee Teng-hui (1923–2020) admired traditional Japanese values and bushido influenced him. In Japanese Taiwan, Teng-hui learned kendo in school and he was deeply influenced by bushido and the Japanese Bushido spirit, which had a significant impact on his future life. He wrote the 2003 Japanese book "Bushido" Precis: What is Noblesse oblige? which strived to boost Japan's morale during the economic stagnation by appealing to Japan's warrior spirit.

Communication

In the utilization of bushido's seven virtues, the Samurai code has been renewed to contribute to the development of communication skills between adult Japanese couples. Composed in 2012, the empirical document "The Bushido Matrix for Couple Communication" identifies a methodology that can be employed by counseling agents to guide adults in self-reflection and share emotions with their partner. This activity centers on the "Bushido Matrix Worksheet" (BMW). The authors accentuate, "practicing Bushido virtues can ultimately enhance intra- and interpersonal relationship, beginning with personal awareness and extending to couple awareness. When utilizing the matrix, a couple is asked to identify one of the seven virtues and apply it to their past and current perceptions surrounding its prevalence in their lives. If individuals identify their relationship to be absent that specific virtue, they may now ponder its inclusion for their benevolence.

Martial arts

The bushido spirit exists in Japanese martial arts. Modern bushido focuses more on self-defense, fighting, sports, tournaments, and just physical fitness training. While all of these things are important to the martial arts, a much more important thing is missing, which is personal development. Bushido's art taught soldiers the important secrets of life, how to raise children, how to dress, how to treat family and other people, how to cultivate personality, and things related to finances. All of these things are important to be a respected soldier. Although modern bushido is guided by eight virtues, that alone is not enough. Bushido not only taught one how to become a soldier, but also all the stages of life. The warrior described by bushido is not a profession but a way of life. It is not necessary to be in the army to be a soldier. The term "warrior" refers to a person who is fighting for something, not necessarily physically. Man is a true warrior because of what is in his heart, mind, and soul. Everything else is just tools in the creation to make it perfect. Bushido is a way of life that means living in every moment, honorably and honestly. All this is of great importance in the life of a soldier, both now and in the past.

In the book Kata – The true essence of Budo martial arts?, Simon Dodd and David Brown state that bushido spiritualism led the martial art 'Bujutsu' to evolve into modern 'Budō' (武道). For their analysis, they review the Kamakura period to reiterate the influence bushido held in martial arts evolution. They distinctly state, "For clarity any reference to bushido is in relation to bujutsu within the Kamakura to pre-Meiji restoration period (pre-1868), and any links to budo are referring to the modern form of the martial arts." To supplement this affirmation Dodd and Brown discuss the variance between the meaning behind Bujutsu and Budo. According to Todd and Brown, Budo is a redevelopment of traditional Kamakura period martial arts principles; Budo defines the way of the warrior through roots in religious ethics and philosophy. The martial art form's translation binds it to Confucian and Buddhist concepts of bushido:

Respected karate-ka Kousaku Yokota explains how Bujutsu could be considered the "art of fighting or killing" and encompasses a 'win at all costs' mentality required for battlefield survival (Yokota, 2010, p. 185). Conversely, Budo could be considered the "art of living or life" and enables a practitioner to live "honestly and righteously or at least with principles". Expanding on both these points, Deshimaru (1982, p. 11; p. 46) reports that the ideogram for bu means "the cease the struggle" and that "in Budo the point is...to find peace and mastery of the self"

Way of life

Some people use bushido as a way of life. For example, the Japanese music artist Gackt said that his philosophical way of life is similar to bushido. In 2011, during interviews about his martial arts action movie Bunraku (2010), he said: Being Japanese, bushido is my roots, and is an important part of my country's culture. I believe it is my role to share this beautiful culture with the world. Bushido is a big part of me personally as well as in my professional career....Bushido is also the core of how I think, feel, and live so I felt this was a great opportunity for me to express to the world what "Bushido" really means. Other notable people who used bushido in life include Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek, who adopted Bushido during his education in Japan.

In October 2011, Spain's Prince of Asturias Award for Concord was given to the heroes of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, aka the Fukushima 50. They were praised for their conduct, which "embodied the values most deeply rooted in Japanese society" and "courage and exemplary behaviour" with self-sacrifice. This was described by the media as "samurai spirit".

Japan Self-Defense Forces

The Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) are the successor of the Armed Forces of the Empire of Japan, which existed from 1868 till 1947. The JSDF was officially established with the Self-Defense Forces Act in 1954 (Act No. 165 of 1954). It is primarily used for national defense due to limitations of Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution. Bushido is only used symbolically for example with names for combat exercises such as Exercise Bushido Guardian (2019). There are supporters and opposition for introducing bushido to the JSDF.

Since 2000, numerous general officers have proclaimed the importance of bushido with lectures. Bushido is useful for uniting troops with slogans such as "bravery", "discipline", and "honesty".

Takashi Araya is an author, martial artist and JGSDF veteran (1982–2008) who established the first special forces of the JSDF. Araya wrote the 2015 book To those who Fight: Japan's Cause and Bushido. He describes the essence of bushido which was created over a thousand years, and stresses the importance of training soldiers with bushido. He argues the purpose of Japanese martial arts is not to kill other people, but to cleanse their evil spirits and open the way for coexistence and co-prosperity. He says that by training soldiers with bushido, they can become the strongest fighting special forces. He wants JSDF members to inherit bushido to be brave and live dignifiedly. By using the action philosophy of bushido, they can become not only strong technologically, but also spiritually.

Some critics say that excessive praise of bushido could repeat the mistakes of the former Imperial Armed Forces. The old Japanese military officer training of the IJA emphasized courage under fire (assault) instead of scientific ability. This created close solidarity between the soldiers and officers, but the officers lacked the skills that the soldiers had. Japanese troops put high significance on dying bravely and spiritual value instead of long-term endurance. This resulted in "an inclination toward spirituality that ignores reality." This ethos exists in the JSDF. By having officers act like soldiers to earn their loyalty with the courage of bushido, it causes sleep deprivation. It's disputed whether it has significance for modern warfare, such as space warfare and cyberwarfare.

There was a case of a National Police Reserve (1950–1954) member who committed seppuku to apologize for being unable to become an ideal soldier. Another example was a young squadron commander who failed an exercise due to repeatedly attacking rather than changing tactics. The pre-war Imperial Japanese Navy researcher Alexander Chiralfi said the Japanese mindset was subjective and had no interest in academically analysing unrelated maritime issues. Subjective and short-sighted discussions don't yield wise strategies. The ideal image of executives should change according to the times and strategic environment. Thus, feudal bushido may not fit in a modern strategic environment and culture. Critics argue that the Meiji Army defeated the Qing and the Imperial Russian Army, not because of bushido, but because it was a professional military organization. Therefore, Bushido should not become the values of the whole JSDF. Rather, the ideal image of JSDF executives should be defined to achieve national interests.

Bushido types and tenets

Multiple bushido types have existed through history. The code varied due to influences such as Zen Buddhism, Shinto, Confucianism, as well as changes in society and on the battlefield. The consistent ideal is martial spirit, including athletic, military skills, and valor: fearlessness toward the enemy in battle. Bushido is a path that the samurai of each era pursued for their entire existence.

Sengoku bushido

Period: Muromachi-Azuchi (Sengoku period) (1336–1603)

Representative and important figures: Takeda Shingen, Uesugi Kenshin, Oda Nobunaga, Tokugawa Ieyasu, Katō Kiyomasa, Nabeshima Naoshige

During this era, the daimyo expanded their territory by force and strategy. Battles occurred frequently in various places. The purpose was to expand one's power. The killing of the enemy in a battle led to an evaluation.

Certain daimyos wrote about moral codes with influence from Zen Buddhism and Confucianism. There was not yet a strong attachment to moral values (apart from honor) in samurai society. Honor, weaponry, and warfare were valued as of the utmost importance in Japanese culture. Low priority was placed on monetary savings.

Honor

Warfare

Weapon mastery

Martial arts

Valor in battle

Early moral codes

Edo bushido

Period: Early to late Edo (1603–1868)

Representative and important figures: Kōsaka Masanobu, Saito Chikamori, Yamaga Soko, Daidoji Tomoyama, Yagyu Munenori, Yamaoka Tesshu, Miyamoto Musashi, Yamamoto Tsunetomo, Hishikawa Moronobu

After the chaotic Sengoku period, politics were carried out in an orderly fashion, and peace was maintained. The samurai could no longer obtain merit on the battlefield. They found more significance in the samurai's existence in areas other than battle. As per Confucianism, it was valued to work for morals and the public, not for personal reasons. In addition, there were many martial arts that included religious boundaries, such as Buddhism and Shinto. A famous example is a passage in the Hagakure: "Bushido is realised in the presence of death. In the case of having to choose between life and death, you should choose death. There is no other reasoning. Move on with determination." It can be difficult to interpret, but it was radical at the time. That appeared in the Taihei era of the Edo period. The oral tradition of the Saga Domain feudal lord Nabeshima Mitsushige, Yamamoto Tsunetomo, is the main subject. Many expressions criticize the samurai who are associated with Confucianism and Buddhism, which were popular at the time. Many works guide the art of treatment while describing the spirit of the samurai of the Sengoku period.

Bushidō expanded and formalized the earlier code of the samurai, and stressed sincerity, frugality, loyalty, mastery of martial arts, and honour to the death. Under the bushidō ideal, if a samurai failed to uphold his honor he could only regain it by performing seppuku (ritual suicide). The core of bushido consists of a combination of teachings from Japan's three main philosophical traditions: 1. Buddhist precepts of serenity, stoicism, and non-attachment to life. 2. Shinto notions of fidelity and patriotism, and 3. Confucian morality. People imbued with bushi katagi (武士気質; lit. "samurai spirit") can serenely carry out their work in the face of any adversity, and have the willpower to master themselves. Taira Shigesuke, Daidōji Yūzan wrote Bushido Shoshinshu (武道初心集) (pre-1730), which provides practical and moral instructions for samurai to improve personal, social, and professional standards.

In an excerpt from his book Samurai: The World of the Warrior, historian Stephen Turnbull describes the role of seppuku in feudal Japan:

Meiji bushido

Period: Meiji to mid Showa (1868–1945).

Representative and important figures: Nitobe Inazō, Yukio Mishima, Kanō Jigorō, Kanno Kakumyō, Eiichi Shibusawa, Fukuzawa Yukichi

Meiji bushido added absolute subservience to the will of the Emperor with an emphasis on loyalty and self-sacrifice. The book Bushido: The Soul of Japan by Nitobe Inazō popularized bushido internationally during the Meiji era. However, the morals that he described are romanticized interpretations and do not represent all of bushido through history.

In the Taishō era, bushido as the way of the merchant was advocated by industrialist Shibusawa Eiichi (1840–1931), known as the "father of Japanese capitalism". Shibusawa was also a warrior who learned Shindō Munen-ryū and Hokushin Ittō-ryū. He spent some time as a vassal of Tokugawa Yoshinobu, and since the Meiji era, he was a businessman and involved in the establishment of hundreds of corporations.

In his book "Theory and Arithmetic" (論語と算盤), he advocated the word "samurai business talent" (士魂商才). He linked the spirit of the samurai (bushido with the influence of Confucianism) to economic activity and denied immoral merchants for self-interest.

As mentioned above, historically there was no unified code, which varied from clan to clan, but the so-called bushidō code was typified by eight virtues according to Nitobe Inazō, while he was in the United States, under obvious influence of western chivalry notions in the Meiji Period (1900): Nitobe defined bushido as "the ways which fighting nobles should observe in their daily life as in their vocation."

Righteousness (義, gi)

Be acutely honest throughout your dealings with all people. Believe in justice, not from other people, but from yourself. To the true warrior, all points of view are deeply considered regarding honesty, justice, and integrity. Warriors make a full commitment to their decisions.

Heroic Courage (勇, yū)

Contemporary bushido

Period: 1950–Present

Representative and important figures: Chiang Kai-shek, Gackt, Fukushima 50

Bushido continues to exist in various forms in for example business, communication, martial arts, and as a way of life. This is also called the bushido spirit.

Modern translations

Modern Western translation of documents related to bushidō began in the 1970s with Carl Steenstrup, who performed research into the ethical codes of famous samurai including Hōjō Sōun and Imagawa Sadayo.

Primary research into bushidō was later conducted by William Scott Wilson in his 1982 text Ideals of the Samurai: Writings of Japanese Warriors. The writings span hundreds of years, family lineage, geography, social class, and writing style—yet share a common set of values. Wilson's work also examined older Japanese writings unrelated to the warrior class: the Kojiki, Shoku Nihongi, the Kokin Wakashū, and the Konjaku Monogatari, as well as the Chinese Classics (the Analects, the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, and the Mencius). In May 2008, Thomas Cleary translated a collection of 22 writings on bushidō by warriors, scholars, political advisers, and educators, spanning 500 years from the 14th to the 19th centuries. Titled Training the Samurai Mind: A Bushido Sourcebook, it gave an insider's view of the samurai world: "the moral and psychological development of the warrior, the ethical standards they were meant to uphold, their training in both martial arts and strategy, and the enormous role that the traditions of Shintoism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism had in influencing samurai ideals".

In literature

Examples of important Japanese literature related to bushido from the 12th to the 21st century: